Foreign investment is not permitted in activities related to the processing, disposition, and disposal of toxic, hazardous, or radioactive waste not produced in Colombia.
Sector: Transportation
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Ley 336 de 1996, Arts. 9 y 10 Decreto 149 de 1999, Art. 5
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
Suppliers of public transportation services within the territory of Colombia must be enterprises organized under Colombian law and domiciled in Colombia. Only foreign enterprises with an agent or representative domiciled in Colombia and legally responsible for its activities in Colombia may supply multimodal transportation of cargo within and from the territory of Colombia.
Sector: Maritime and Fluvial Transportation
Obligations Concerned: Performance Requirements (Article 8.9) Senior Management and Board of Directors (Article 8.10) National Treatment (Article 9.2) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Decreto 804 de 2001, Arts. 2 y 4 inciso 4 C digo de Comercio de 1971, Art. 1455 Decreto Ley 2324 de 1984, Arts. 99, 101 y 124 Ley 658 de 2001, Art. 11 Decreto 1597 de 1988, Art. 23
Description: Investment and Cross-Border Trade in Services
Only enterprises organized under Colombian law using Colombian flag vessels may supply maritime and fluvial transport services between two points within the territory of Colombia (cabotage). All foreign-flagged vessels entering a Colombian port must have a representative legally responsible for their activities in Colombia and domiciled in Colombia. The maritime and fluvial public service of pilotage on Colombian territorial waters may only be performed by Colombian nationals. In Colombian flag vessels and foreign-flagged vessels (except those relating to fishing) that operate in Colombian jurisdictional waters for a period of time longer than six months, continuous or discontinuous, from the date of the issuing of the respective permit, the captain, officials and at least 80 percent of the rest of the crew must be Colombians.
Sector: Port Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 9.2) Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Ley 1 de 1991, Arts. 5.20 y 6 Decreto 1423 de 1989, Art. 38
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
The holder of a concession to supply port services must be organized under Colombian law as a corporation (sociedad anónima) whose corporate objective is the construction, maintenance, and administration of ports. Only Colombian flag vessels may supply port services in Colombian waters. However, in exceptional cases, the Dirección General Marítima may authorize supply of such services by foreign flag vessels if no Colombian vessel has the capacity to supply such service. The authorization will be issued for six months, but may be extended up to one year.
Sector: Air Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 8.3) Performance Requirements (Article 8.9)
Measures: Código de Comercio de 1971, Arts. 1795, 1803 y 1804
Description: Investment
Only Colombian nationals or juridical persons organized under Colombian law may own and maintain real and effective control of an airplane registered to supply commercial air services in Colombia. All air services companies established in Colombia as an agency or branch shall employ Colombian workers in a proportion of no less than 90 percent for their operation in Colombia.
Annex I. Schedule of Korea
Sector: Construction Services
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Framework Act on the Construction Industry (Law No. 11015, August 4, 2011), Articles 9 and 10 Enforcement Decree of the Framework Act on the Construction Industry (Presidential Decree No. 23583, February 2, 2012), Article 13 Enforcement Regulations of the Framework Act on the Construction Industry (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 397, November 3, 2011), Articles 2 and 3 Information and Communication Construction Business Act (Law No. 10250, April 12, 2010), Article 14 Fire Fighting System Installation Business Act (Law No. 11036, August 4, 2011), Articles 4 and 5 Enforcement Decree of the Fire Fighting System Installation Business Act (Presidential Decree No. 23571, January 31, 2012), Article 2 (Table 1) Enforcement Regulations of the Fire Fighting System Installation Business Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Public Administration and Security No. 282, February 3, 2012), Article 2
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies construction services in Korea must , prior to the signing of the first contract related to such services establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Leasing, Rental, Maintenance, Repair, Sales, and Disposal Services Related to Construction Machinery and Equipment
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Construction Machinery Management Act (Law No. 11361, February 22, 2012), Article 21 Enforcement Decree of the Construction Machinery Management Act (Presidential Decree No. 22467, November 2, 2010), Articles 13, 14, 15, and 15-2 Enforcement Regulations of the Construction Machinery Management Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 266, July 20, 2010), Articles 57 through 63, 65-2, and 65-3
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies leasing, rental, maintenance, repair, sales, and disposal services related to construction machinery and equipment must establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Transportation Services - Automobile Maintenance, Repair, Sales, Disposal, and Inspection Services; Automobile License Plate Issuing Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Automobile Management Act (Law No. 11190, January 17, 2012), Articles 20, 44, 45, and 53 Enforcement Regulations of the Automobile Management Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 222, February 18, 2010), Articles 7, 8, 83, 87, and 111
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies automobile management services (which includes used car sales, maintenance, auto dismantling and recycling services) must establish an office in Korea and obtain authorization from the head of the si/gun/gu (municipal authorities), which is subject to an economic needs test, as appropriate. A person that supplies automobile inspection services that is designated as a “designated repair facility” must establish an office in Korea. A person that supplies license plate manufacturing, delivery, and seal services that is designated as a “license plate issuing agency” must establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Distribution Services - Wholesale and Retail Distribution of Tobacco and Liquor
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Tobacco Business Act (Law No. 9932, January 18, 2010), Articles 12, 13, and 16 Enforcement Decree of the Tobacco Business Act (Presidential Decree No. 23349, December 6, 2011), Articles 4 and 5 Enforcement Regulations of the Tobacco Business Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Strategy and Finance No. 131, March 3, 2010), Articles 5, 7, and 7-3 Liquors Act (Law No. 11134, December 31, 2011), Articles 8 through 10 Enforcement Decree of the Liquors Act (Presidential Decree No. 23598, February 2, 2012), Article 9 Notice of National Tax Service, 2010-13 (April 1, 2010) and 2011-24 (December 31, 2011)
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies tobacco wholesale (including importation) or retail distribution services must establish an office in Korea. Only designated tobacco retailers may sell tobacco to retail buyers. The sale of tobacco to retail buyers by mail or in electronic commerce is prohibited. The distance between places of business of tobacco retailers must be at least 50 meters. A person that supplies liquor wholesale distribution services must establish an office in Korea and obtain authorization from the head of the relevant tax office, which is subject to an economic needs test. The sale of liquor by telephone or in electronic commerce is prohibited.
Sector: Agriculture and Livestock
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 8.3)
Measures: Foreign Investment Promotion Act (Law No. 10801, June 15, 2011), Article 4 Enforcement Decree of the Foreign Investment Promotion Act (Presidential Decree No. 23297, November 16, 2011), Article 5 Consolidated Public Notice for Foreign Investment (No. 2012-220, April 26, 2012, Ministry of Knowledge Economy), Appendix 1
Description: Investment
Foreign persons may not: (i) invest in an enterprise engaged in rice or barley farming; or (ii) hold 50 percent or more of the equity interest of an enterprise engaged in beef cattle farming.
Sector: Business Services - An-gyung-sa (Optician and Optometry) Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Medical Technicians Act (Law No. 11102, November 22, 2011), Article 12 Enforcement Regulations of the Medical Technicians Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 124, May 23, 2012), Article 15
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
Only a natural person that is a licensed an-gyung-sa (optician or optometrist) that has established an office in Korea may engage in optician or optometry services. An an-gyung-sa (optician or optometrist) may not establish more than one office.
Sector: Wholesale and Retail Distribution Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Pharmaceutical Affairs Act (Law No. 10788, June 7, 2011), Articles 42 and 45 Decree on the Facility Standards of Pharmacy, Manufacturer, Importer and Distributor of Pharmaceuticals (Presidential Decree No. 23248, October 25, 2011), Articles 6 and 7 Supply, Demand and Distribution of Oriental Medicinal Herbs Regulations (Notice of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 2011-118, September 28, 2011), Articles 4 and 13 Medical Devices Act (Law No. 10564, April 7, 2011), Article 15 Enforcement Regulations of the Medical Devices Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 85, November 25, 2011), Article 19 Functional Foods Act (Law No. 10219, March 31, 2010), Article 6 Enforcement Regulations of the Functional Foods Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 48, April 1, 2011), Articles 2 and 5 Food Sanitation Act (Law No. 10787, June 7, 2011), Articles 24, 36 and 37 Enforcement Decree of the Food Sanitation Act (Presidential Decree No. 23619, February 3, 2012), Articles 23 and 24 Enforcement Regulations of the Food Sanitation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 125, May 31, 2012), Articles 23 and 36 (attached table 14) Act on the Control of Narcotics (Law No. 10786, June 7, 2011), Article 6
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies wholesale trade services must establish an office in Korea in order to receive an import business license to supply such services with respect to: (a) pharmaceuticals and related items; (b) medical devices; or (c) functional foods (including dietary supplements). To supply the following services a person must establish an office in Korea: (a) transportation, sales, and preservation (cold storage) of food and food additives; (b) food supply services; (c) food inspection services; or (d) narcotic drug wholesale and retail distribution services. The Minister of Health and Welfare controls the supply and demand of the wholesale distribution of imported designated han-yak-jae (Asian medicinal herbs). Certain liquor-selling bars and the wholesale and retail distribution of narcotics require authorization by the relevant authority.
Sector: Retail Distribution of Pharmaceuticals
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Pharmaceutical Affairs Act (Law No. 10788, June 7, 2011), Articles 20 and 21
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies pharmaceutical product retail distribution services (including distribution of han-yak-jae (Asian medicinal herbs)) must establish a pharmacy in Korea. That person may not establish more than one pharmacy nor establish in the form of a corporation.
Sector: Transportation Services - Rail Transportation and Incidental Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4)
Measures: Railroad Enterprise Act (Law No. 10722, May 24, 2011), Articles 5, 6, 12, and 13 Korea Railroad Corporation Act (Law No. 10580, April 12, 2011), Article 9 Railroad Construction Act (Law No. 10599, April 14, 2011), Article 8 Framework Act on Railroad Industry Development (Law No. 9772, June 9, 2009), Articles 3, 20, 26, and 38 Korea Rail Network Authority Act (Law No. 9391, January 30, 2009), Article 7
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
Only the Korea Railroad Corporation may supply railroad transportation services on railroad routes constructed on or before June 30, 2005. Only juridical persons that have obtained authorization from the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs may supply railroad transportation services on railroad routes constructed on or after July 1, 2005. Such authorization is subject to an economic needs test. In case that a person who operates a rail transport service business concludes or revises a contract for joint venture or agreement related to transport, he/she must obtain relevant authorization from the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs. Only the central or local level of government or the Korea Rail Network Authority may supply rail construction services and maintain and repair government-owned rail facilities (including high-speed rail). However, juridical persons that meet the criteria in the Act on Public-Private Partnerships in Infrastructure may supply rail construction services.
Sector: Transportation Services - Passenger Road Transportation Services (not including Taxis and Scheduled Passenger Road Transportation Services)
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Passenger Transport Service Act (Law No. 10599, April 14, 2011), Article 4 Enforcement Decree of the Passenger Transport Service Act (Presidential Decree No. 23743, April 20, 2012), Article 3 Enforcement Regulations of the Passenger Transport Service Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 425, December 30, 2011), Article 11 Tramway Transportation Act (Law No. 11060, September 16, 2011), Article 4 Enforcement Regulations of Tramway Transportation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 208, January 11, 2010), Article 3
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies passenger road transportation services, not including taxis and scheduled passenger road transportation services, must establish an office in the dang-hae--ji-yeok (relevant geographic area) in Korea.
Sector: Transportation Services - International Maritime Cargo Transportation and Maritime Auxiliary Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 9.2) Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Maritime Transportation Act (Law No. 10219, March 31, 2010), Articles 24 and 33 Enforcement Regulations of the Maritime Transportation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 147, July 1, 2009), Articles 16, 19, 22, and 23 Pilotage Act (Law No. 10801, June 15, 2011), Article 6 Ship Investment Company Act (Law No. 9707, May 22, 2009), Articles 3 and 31
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies international maritime cargo transportation and shipping brokerage services must be organized as a Chusik Hoesa (stock company) in Korea. A ship investment company must also be organized as a Chusik Hoesa (stock company) in Korea. Only a Korean national may supply maritime pilotage services.
Sector: Transportation Services - Air Transportation Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 8.3) Senior Management and Boards of Directors (Article 8.10)
Measures: Aviation Act (Law No. 11244, January 26, 2012), Articles 2, 3, 6, 112, 113, 114, 129 and 132 Enforcement Regulations of the Aviation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 436, January 18, 2012), Articles 14-2, 15, 278, 278-3, 296-2, 298 and 299
Description: Investment
The following persons may not supply scheduled or non-scheduled domestic air transportation services or supply international air transportation services as Korean air carriers: (a) a foreign national; (b) a foreign government or a foreign gong-gong-dan-che (organization for public purposes); (c) an enterprise organized under foreign law; (d) an enterprise in which any of the persons referred to in subparagraphs (a) through (c) owns 50 percent or more of the equity interest, or has control; or (e) an enterprise organized under Korean law whose dae-pyo-ja (for example, a chief executive officer, president, or similar principal senior officer) is a foreign national or half or more of whose senior management are foreign nationals. A person that owns an aircraft or is authorized to operate a chartered aircraft must register the aircraft with the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs. The persons listed in subparagraphs (a) through (e) are not allowed to register an aircraft. For purposes of this entry, non-scheduled air transportation services include point-to-point transportation services, flight tour services and charter flight services.
Sector: Transportation Services - Aircraft- Use Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Article 8.3) Senior Management and Boards of Directors (Article 8.10)
Measures: Aviation Act (Law No. 11244, January 26, 2012), Articles 3, 6, and 134 Enforcement Regulations of the Aviation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 436, January 18, 2012), Articles 15-2, 298 and 299-2
Description: Investment
A person that supplies aircraft A person that supplies aircraft--sasa--yongyong (use) services(use) services mmust register its selfust register its self--owned owned or chartered aircraft witor chartered aircraft with the h the Minister ofMinister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs.. The The following persons may not registerfollowing persons may not register anan aircraftaircraft:: (a) a foreign national; (b) a foreign government or a foreign gong-gong-dan-che (organization for public purposes); (c) an enterprise organized under foreign law; (d) an enterprise in which any of those referred to in subparagraphs (a) through (c) owns 50 percent or more of the equity interest, or has control; or (e) an enterprise organized under Korean law whose dae-pyo-ja (for example, a chief executive officer, president, or similar principal senior officer) is a foreign national or half or more of whose senior management are foreign nationals. For purposes of this entry, aircraft-sa-yong (use) services are services using an aircraft, and supplied upon request, for hire, other than for passenger or freight transportation, including aerial fire-fighting, forestry fire management, aerial advertising, flight training, aerial mapping, aerial investigation, aerial spraying, aerial photographing and other aerial agricultural activities, aerial inspections and observations, glider towing, parachute jumping, aerial glider towing, parachute jumping, aerial construction, construction, and and heliheli--logginglogging.
Sector: Transportation Services - Road Transportation Support Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Passenger Transport Service Act (Law No. 10599, April 14, 2011), Articles 36 and 37 Enforcement Regulations of the Passenger Transport Service Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 425, December 30, 2011), Article 73 Parking Lot Service Act (Law No. 10599, April 14, 2011), Article 12 Road Traffic Act (Law No. 10790, June 8, 2011), Article 36
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies parking lot services, bus terminal operation services, or car towing and storage services must establish a place of business in the relevant geographic area in Korea and obtain an authorization from the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs, head of local police, or head of shi/gun, as appropriate, which is subject to an economic needs test.
Sector: Courier Services
Obligations Concerned: Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Aviation Act (Law No. 11116, December 2, 2012), Article 139 Enforcement Regulations of the Aviation Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 436, January 18, 2012), Article 306 Truck Transportation Business Act (Law No. 11064, September 16, 2011), Articles 3, 24 and 29 Enforcement Regulations of Truck Transportation Business Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 430, December 31, 2011), Articles 6, 34 and 41-2
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
To supply international courier services that include commercial document delivery services, as specified in Article 3 of the Enforcement Decree of the Postal Services Act, a person must establish an office in Korea. In order to obtain a trucking business license from the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs, a domestic courier services supplier must establish an office in the relevant geographic area. Such a license is subject to an economic needs test.
Sector: Telecommunications Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Articles 8.3 and 9.2) Market Access (Article 9.4) Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Telecommunications Business Act (Law No. 10656, May 19, 2011), Articles 6, 7, 8, 21 and 87 Telecommunications Business Act (Law No. 5385, August 28, 1997), Addenda Article 4 Radio Waves Act (Law No. 10393, July 23, 2010), Articles 13 and 20
Description: Investment and Cross-Border Trade in Services
A license for facilities-based public telecommunications services or a registration for non-facilities-based public telecommunications services shall be granted only to a juridical person organized under Korean law. A license for facilities-based public telecommunications services shall not be granted to or held by a juridical person organized under Korean law in which a foreign government, foreign person, or deemed foreign person holds in the aggregate more than 49 percent of the juridical person’s total voting shares. A foreign government, foreign person, or deemed foreign person may not in the aggregate hold more than 49 percent of the total voting shares of a facilities-based supplier of public telecommunications services. In addition, with respect to KT Corporation (KT), a foreign government, foreign person, or deemed foreign person may not be the largest shareholder of KT, except if it holds less than five percent of the total voting shares of KT. A foreign government, or its representative, or a foreign person may not obtain or hold a radio station license. A foreign person may not supply cross-border public telecommunications services into Korea, except through a commercial arrangement with a supplier of public telecommunications services that is licensed in Korea. For purposes of this entry:
(a) deemed foreign person means a juridical person organized under Korean law in which a foreign government or a foreign person (including a “specially related person” under relevant Korean laws or regulations) is the largest shareholder and holds 15 percent or more of that juridical person’s total voting shares, but does not include a juridical person that holds less than 1 percent of the total voting shares of a facilities-based supplier of public telecommunications services;
(b) consistent with Article 5.2 of the Telecommunications Business Act (Law No. 10656, May 19, 2011), a facilities-based supplier is a supplier that owns transmission facilities;
(c) consistent with Article 5.3 of the Telecommunications Business Act (Law No. 10656, May 19, 2011), a non-facilities-based supplier is a supplier that does not own transmission facilities (but may own a switch, router or multiplexer) and supplies its public telecommunication services through transmission facilities of a licensed facilities-based supplier; and
(d) consistent with Article 2.3 of the Telecommunications Basic Act (Law No. 10139, March 17, 2010), transmission facilities means wireline or wireless transmission facilities (including circuit facilities) that connect transmitting points with receiving points.
Sector: Real Estate Brokerage and Appraisal Services
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Act on Duties of a Licensed Real Estate Broker and Filing of Real Estate Transactions (Law No. 10580, April 12, 2011), Article 9 Enforcement Decree of the Act on Duties of a Licensed Real Estate Broker and Filing of Real Estate Transactions (Presidential Decree No. 23086, August 19, 2011), Article 13 Enforcement Regulations of the Act on Duties of a Licensed Real Estate Broker and Filing of Real Estate Transactions (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 399, November 8, 2011), Article 4 Public Notice of Values and Appraisal of Real Estate Act (Law No. 10136, March 17, 2010), Article 27 Enforcement Decree of the Public Notice of Values and Appraisal of Real Estate Act (Presidential Decree No. 23488, January 6, 2012), Articles 65, 66, and 68 Enforcement Regulations of the Public Notice of Values and Appraisal of Real Estate Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 456, April 13, 2012), Articles 25 and 26
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies real estate brokerage services or real estate appraisal services must establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Retail, Leasing, Rental and Repair Services Related to Medical Devices
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Medical Devices Act (Law No. 10564, April 7, 2011), Articles 16 and 17 Enforcement Regulations of the Medical Devices Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Health and Welfare No. 85, November 25, 2011), Articles 22 and 24
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies retail, leasing, rental, or repair services related to medical devices must establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Rental Services - Automobiles
Obligations Concerned: Local Presence (Article 9.5)
Measures: Passenger Transport Service Act (Law No. 10599, April 14, 2011), Articles 28 and 29 Enforcement Regulations of the Passenger Transport Service Act (Ordinance of the Ministry of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs No. 425, December 30, 2011), Article 60
Description: Cross-Border Trade in Services
A person that supplies automobile rental services must establish an office in Korea.
Sector: Scientific Research Services and Sea Map Making Services
Obligations Concerned: National Treatment (Articles 8.3 and 9.2)
Measures: Marine Scientific Research Act (Law No. 8852, February 29, 2008), Articles 6, 7, and 8 Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone Act (Law No. 10524, April 4, 2011), Article 5
Description: Investment and Cross-Border Trade in Services
A foreign person, a foreign government, or a Korean enterprise owned or controlled by a foreign person that intends to conduct marine scientific research in the territorial waters or exclusive economic zone of Korea must obtain prior authorization or consent from the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs whereas a Korean national or a Korean enterprise not owned or controlled by a foreign person need only to provide notification to the Minister of Land, Transport, and Maritime Affairs.